The Legality of Using Personal Data in Predictive Policing in Light of the European Artificial Intelligence Act 2024
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70411/MJLS.3.2.2025228Keywords:
predictive policing, digital privacy, data analysis, algorithms, artificial intelligence, personal dataAbstract
Personal data is the core of the right to digital privacy, which is one of the most basic rights in the era we live in today, characterised by digitalisation. This right aims to protect individuals from the collection, use, analysis, and processing of their personal data without their consent. However, the emergence of predictive policing has raised many concerns about the violation of these rights, as predictive policing algorithms undertake exploration of data and information, especially personal data, to anticipate future crimes or track their perpetrators or victims. The newly introduced European Artificial Intelligence Law, issued in May 2024 has undertaken the establishment of strict controls and guarantees to protectthe right to digital privacy during predictive policing.
References
أولًا: المراجع القانونية
أشرف جابر سيد، الجوانب القانونية لمواقع التواصل الاجتماعي، دار النهضة العربية، 2013.
حوراء موسى، الجرائم المرتكبة عبر وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي، دراسة مقارنة، دار النهضة العربية، 2018.
رمضان السيد الألفي، نظرية الخطورة الإجرامية، دار النهضة العربية، 1998.
هيثم السيد أحمد عيسى، التشخيص الرقمي لحالة الإنسان في عصر التنقيب في البيانات عبر تقنيات الذكاء الاصطناعي وفقاً للائحة الأوروبية العامة لحماية البيانات لعام 2016، دار النهضة العربية، 2019.
ثانيًا: المجلات والمقالات والمنشورات
أنمار عرابي، استخدام أدوات التنقيب في البيانات في دراسة تأثير صفات الزبائن على قرار الشراء، دراسة إحصائية لبيانات الزبائن، مجلة العلوم الإدارية والاقتصادية، كلية الاقتصاد والعلوم الإدارية جامعة عدن، عدد5، 2010.
إيهاب عثمان وعبد الرحمن عثمان، التنبؤات الانتخابية باستخدام تنقيب البيانات، الانتخابات الأمريكية كدراسة حالة، سبتمبر 2016.
تامر صالح، التتبع الجغرافي للمتهم بواسطة تقنية "GPS" والحق في الخصوصية، مجلة البحوث القانونية والاقتصادية، عدد خاص بالمؤتمر الدولي السنوي العشرون، كلية الحقوق، جامعة المنصورة، 23-24 مايو 2021.
سامح عبد الواحد التهامي، الحماية القانونية للبيانات الشخصية، دراسة في القانون الفرنسي، مجلة الحقوق، كلية الحقوق جامعة الكويت 35، عدد 3، 2011.
سيف الدين عثمان فتوح والشفيع جعفر محمود، التنقيب في البيانات واتخاذ القرارات، مجلة النيل الأبيض للدراسات والبحوث، كلية العلوم والتكنولوجيا، جامعة النيل الأبيض، العدد 3 ، 2014.
شادي عبد الوهاب منصور، الشرطة التنبؤية، اعتماد متزايد لأجهزة الأمن الغربية على أساليب الاستخبارات، مجلة أوراق أكاديمية، مركز المستقبل للدراسات والأبحاث المتقدمة، العدد 4، أكتوبر 2018.
محمود سلامة الشريف، الطبيعة القانونية للتنبؤ بالجريمة بواسطة الذكاء الاصطناعي ومشروعيته، المجلة العربية لعلوم الأدلة الجنائية والطب الشرعي، العدد 3، المجلد 2، 2021.
ثالثًا: المواقع الإلكترونية
الموقع الإلكتروني لوزارة العدل الأمريكية على الرابط الآتي،، بتاريخ دخول 1-6-2024، https،//www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/242222and248891.pdf
الموقع الإلكتروني لمقال بعنوان "شرطة دبي تستخدم الذكاء الاصطناعي للتنبؤ بالجريمة قبل وقوعها، 2016، على الرابط الآتي، بتاريخ دخول 10/6/2024، https،//shorturl.at/T9N0h
رابعًا: المراجع الأجنبية
Alice Norga, 4 Benefits And 4 Drawbacks Of Predictive Policing, TECH & RIGHTS, July 12, 2021
Alyse Burnside, IT Security Challenges Emerge in Smart Cities, January 19, 2023,
Antoni Roig, "SAFEGUARDS FOR THE RIGHT NOT TO BE SUBJECT TO A DECISION BASED SOLELY ON AUTOMATED PROCESSING (ARTICLE 22 GDPR)", European Journal of Law and Technology 8, no.3, 2017
Artificial Intelligence Act، MEPs adopt landmark law, Press Releases
Bachner, Jennifer. 2013. Predictive Policing، Preventing Crime with Data and Analytics. Washington, DC، IBM, Centre for the Business of Government
Beck, C., and C. McCue, “Predictive Policing، What Can We Learn From Wal-Mart and Amazon About Fighting Crime in a Recession?” The Police Chief 76, 11, November 2009
Benjamin Docquir, GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION 2016,Quelles obligations prévoit le projet de règlement européen sur les données personnelles (GDPR) ?(Belgique, Bruxelles، Simont Braun, 2016.
Beth Pearsall; Predictive Policing، The Future of Law Enforcement? NIJ Journal / Issue No. 266.
Browning, Christopher R., Reginald A. Byron, Catherine A. Calder, Lauren J. Krivo, Mei-Po Kwan, Jae-Yong Lee, and Ruth D. Peterson. 2010. Commercial density, residential concentration, and crime، Land use patterns and violence in neighbourhood context. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47، 329–57.
Bryce Goodman and Seth Flaxman, European Union regulations on algorithmic decision-making and a "right to explanation", Al Magazine 38, No 3, 2017
David Black, Predictive Policing Is Here Now, The Dallas Morning News, February 26th, 2016
De Mauro, Andrea et al. “A formal definition of Big Data based on its essential features.” Library Review 65 ,2016.
Eck, John E., YongJei Lee, O. SooHyun, and Natalie Martinez. 2017. Compared to what? Estimating the relative concentration of crime at places using systematic and other reviews. Crime Science 6، 1–17.
Els de Busser, Data Protection in EU and US Criminal Cooperation، A Substantive Law Approach to the EU Internal and Transatlantic Cooperation in Criminal Matters Between Judicial and Law Enforcement Authorities (Antwerpen Belgium، Maklu Publishers, 2009
ensure that ‘high-risk’ systems have accessibility requirements for people with disabilities; and widen the definition of AI to cover the full range of AI systems which have been proven to impact fundamental rights.
Fair Trials, Partial ban on ‘predictive’ policing and crime prediction systems included in final EU AI Act, 11 December 2023
Ferguson, Andrew. 2017. Policing predictive policing. Washington University Law Review 94.
Harvin Bhathal, Canada’s Predictive Policing Tech Is Poorly Regulated Under AI Policy, TRUTHOUT, June 13, 2022
Heather J. Williams and Ilana Blum, Defining Second Generation Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) for the Defense Enterprise, California ,US، RAND Corporation, 2018
Isaka Mendoza and Lee A.B ygrave, "The right not to be subject to automated decisions based on profiling", in EU Internet Law regulation and enforcement, ed, Tatiana Eleni Synodinou,ct.al. Berlin, Germany، springer, 2017
Jannik Lindner, Ai In Law Enforcement Statistics, WORLDMETRICS REPORT 2024, June 17, 2024.
Jessie Levano, Predictive Policing in the AI Act، meaningful ban or paper tiger? 5 JULY 2024, EUROPEAN LAW BLOG,
KATARÍNA HIĽOVSKÁ and PETER KONCZ, "Application of Artificial Intelligence and Data Mining Techniques to Financial Markets", Acta všfs 6, 2012
Kazemi, General Data Protection Regulation, 29
KYODO, Kanagawa police to launch AI-based predictive policing system before Olympics, the Japan times, Jan 29, 2018.
Laux, J. Institutionalised distrust and human oversight of artificial intelligence، towards a democratic design of AI governance under the European Union AI Act. AI & Soc ,2023
Lee, YonJei, John Eck, O SooHyn, and Natalie Martinez. 2017. How concentrated is crime at places? A systematic review from 1970 to 2015. Crime Science 6
Leo Kelion; Crime prediction software 'adopted by 14 UK police forces', BBC, 4 February 2019.
Lopes, Giza, Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, Nicole M. Schmidt, Bob E. Vasquez, and Jon G. Bernburg. Labelling and cumulative disadvantage، The impact of formal police Intervention on life chances and crime during emerging adulthood. Crime & Delinquency 58. 2012
Meijer, Albert, and Martijn Wessels. Predictive Policing; Review of Benefits and drawbacks. International Journal of Public Administration 42. 2019
MIN WANG and ZUOSU JIANG, "The Defining Approaches and Practical Paradox of Sensitive Data، An Investigation of Data Protection Laws in 92 Countries and Regions and 200 Data Breaches in the World", International Journal of Communication 11, 2017.
Miriam Jones, Predictive Policing a Success in Santa Cruz, Calif, Government Technology, October 08, 2012.
Patrick Breyer v Bundesrepublik Deutschland.EJC. C-582/14.16/5/2016 ECLI،EU،C،2016.
Pearsall, Beth. Predictive policing، The Future of Law Enforcement. National Institute of Justice Journal 266، 2010
Perry, Walter L., Brian McInnis, Carter C. Price, Susan Smith, and John S. Hollywood, Predictive Policing، The Role of Crime Forecasting in Law Enforcement Operations. Santa Monica, CA، RAND Corporation, 2013.
Portland State University (PSU). 2012. Predictive Policing، A Review of Literature. Criminology and Criminal Justice Senior Capstone Project, Paper 5
Predictive Policing Market by Technology (Crime Analysis, Facial Recognition Technology, Geo-Location Technology), End-Use (Detective Agencies, Law Enforcement Organization, Military & Defense) - Global Forecast 2024-2030.
Rick Sarre, Ben Livings; Artificial Intelligence and the Administration of Criminal Justice، Predictive Policing and Predictive Justice. Australia Report. University of South Australia. May 2023
Rosamunde Van Brakel and Paul De Hert,"Policing, surveillance and law in a pre-crime society، Understanding the consequences of technology based strategies", in Technology-led policing, eds, Piet Deelman, et al Antwerpen, Belgium، Maklu Publishers, 2011
Safat W, Asghar S, Gillani SA. Empirical analysis for crime prediction and forecasting using machine learning and deep learning techniques, IEEE Access 9 ,2021
Samah Samir; Detecting and Predicting Crimes using Data Mining Techniques، Comparative Study, Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Computers and Information, ICCI 2021
Sunde, Inger Marie. “AI-Based Law Enforcement Online، The Impact of the European Artificial Intelligence Act (AIA)”. Bergen Journal of Criminal Law & Criminal Justice, vol. 10, no. 2, Dec. 2022,.
The data divide، Overcoming an increasing practitioner-academic gap, Larissa Fast, 2 November 2017
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Washington, DC 20229, "U.S. Customs and Border Protection Passenger Name Record (PNR) Privacy Policy, (June 21, 2013). p. 1-8
Uspenski, V. A.. “To the Definition of Algorithms.” ,1993.
Weisburd, David. The law of crime concentration and the criminology of place. Criminology 53، 2015.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Modern Journal of Legal Studies
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The users are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
